Evidence of the Role of Inflammation and the Hormonal Environment in the Pathogenesis of Adrenal Myelolipomas in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.

Adrenal myelolipomas (AML) are composed of mature adipose and hematopoietic components. They represent approximately 3 percent of adrenal tumors and are commonly found in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). CAH provides a unique environment to explore AML pathogenesis. We aimed to evaluate the role of the immune system and hormones that accumulate in poorly controlled CAH in the development of AML. When compared to normal adrenal tissue, CAH-affected adrenal tissue and myelolipomas showed an increased expression of inflammatory cells (CD68, IL2Rbeta), stem cells (CD117) B cells (IRF4), and adipogenic markers (aP2/FABP4, AdipoQ, PPARγ, Leptin, CideA), and immunostaining showed nodular lymphocytic accumulation. Immunohistochemistry staining revealed a higher density of inflammatory cells (CD20, CD3, CD68) in CAH compared to non-CAH myelolipomas. In vitro RNA-sequencing studies using NCI-H295R adrenocortical cells with exogenous exposure to ACTH, testosterone, and 17-hydroxyprogesterone hormones, showed the differential expression of genes involved in cell cycle progression, phosphorylation, and tumorigenesis. Migration of B-lymphocytes was initiated after the hormonal treatment of adrenocortical cells using the Boyden chamber chemotaxis assay, indicating a possible hormonal influence on triggering inflammation and the development of myelolipomas. These findings demonstrate the important role of inflammation and the hormonal milieu in the development of AML in CAH.

Perspectives in weight control in diabetes - SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1-glucagon dual agonism.

Treatment of people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) and obesity should include glycemic control and sustained weight loss. However, organ protection and/or risk reduction for co-morbidities have also emerged as important goals. Here, we define this combined treatment approach as 'weight loss plus' and describe it as a metabolic concept where prolonged periods of energy consumption is central to outcomes. We suggest there are currently two drug classes - sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)-glucagon dual agonists - that can facilitate this 'weight loss plus' approach. We describe evidence supporting that both classes address the underlying pathophysiology of T2D and facilitate normalization of metabolism through increased periods with a catabolic type of energy consumption, which effect other organ systems and may facilitate long-term cardio-renal benefits. These benefits have been demonstrated in trials of SGLT2is, and appear, to some degree, to be independent of glycemia and substantial weight loss. The combined effect of caloric restriction and metabolic correction facilitated by SGLT2i and GLP-1-glucagon dual agonists can be conceptualized as mimicking dietary restriction and physical activity, a phenomenon not previously observed with drugs whose benefits predominantly arise from absolute weight loss, and which may be key to achieving a 'weight loss plus' approach to treatment.

Modified-release hydrocortisone is associated with lower plasma renin activity in patients with salt-wasting congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

OBJECTIVE: Poorly controlled salt-wasting (SW) congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) patients often require high 9α-fluorocortisol doses as they show high levels of 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP), which is a mineralocorticoid (MC)-receptor antagonist. DESIGN: We investigated the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in patients with SW-CAH receiving twice daily modified-release hydrocortisone (MR-HC, Efmody) compared with standard glucocorticoid (GC) therapy. METHODS: Data were analyzed from the 6-month, phase 3 study of MR-HC (n = 42) versus standard GC therapy (n = 41). MC replacement therapy remained unchanged throughout the study. Blood pressure, serum potassium, serum sodium, plasma renin activity (PRA), and serum 17OHP and androstenedione concentrations were analyzed at baseline, 4, 12, and 24 weeks. RESULTS: The median serum 17OHP in the morning was significantly lower on MR-HC compared with standard GC at 24 weeks (2.5 nmol L-1 (IQR 8.3) versus 10.5 nmol L-1 (IQR 55.2), P = .001). PRA decreased significantly from baseline to 24 weeks in patients on MR-HC (0.83 ng L-1 s-1 (IQR 1.0) to 0.48 ng L-1 s-1 (IQR 0.61), P = .012) but not in patients on standard GC (0.53 ng L-1 s-1 (IQR 0.66) to 0.52 ng L-1 s-1 (IQR 0.78), P = .613). Serum sodium concentrations increased from baseline to 24 weeks in patients on MR-HC (138.8 ± 1.9 mmol L-1 to 139.3 ± 1.8 mmol L-1, P = .047), but remained unchanged on standard GC (139.8 ± 1.6 mmol L-1 to 139.3 ± 1.9 mmol L-1, P = .135). No significant changes were seen in systolic and diastolic blood pressure and serum potassium levels. CONCLUSION: 6 months of MR-HC therapy decreased PRA and increased sodium levels indicating a greater agonist action of the 9α-fluorocortisol dose, which may be due to the decreased levels of the MC-receptor antagonist 17OHP.

Precocious Puberty in a Boy With Bilateral Leydig Cell Tumors due to a Somatic Gain-of-Function LHCGR Variant.

Context: Autosomal dominant and rarely de novo gain-of-function variants in the LHCGR gene are associated with precocious male puberty, while somatic LHCGR variants have been found in isolated Leydig cell adenomas and Leydig cell hyperplasia. Bilateral diffuse Leydig cell tumor formation in peripheral precocious male puberty has not been reported. Case Description: We present a boy with gonadotropin-independent precocious puberty and rapid virilization beginning in infancy resistant to standard therapy. Treatment with abiraterone in addition to letrozole and bicalutamide proved effective. Bilateral diffuse Leydig cell tumors were identified at age 5 years. Results: Whole-genome sequencing of tumor and blood samples was performed. The patient was confirmed to have bilateral, diffuse Leydig cell tumors harboring the somatic, gain-of-function p.Asp578His variant in the LHCGR gene. Digital droplet polymerase chain reaction of the LHCGR variant performed in tumor and blood samples detected low levels of this same variant in the blood. Conclusion: We report a young boy with severe gonadotropin-independent precocious puberty beginning in infancy who developed bilateral diffuse Leydig cell tumors at age 5 years due to a somatic gain-of-function p.Asp578His variant in LHCGR. The gain-of-function nature of the LHCGR variant and the developmental timing of the somatic mutation likely play a role in the risk of tumor formation. Abiraterone (a CYP17A1 inhibitor), in combination with an antiandrogen, aromatase inhibitor, and glucocorticoid, appears to be an effective therapy for severe peripheral precocious puberty in boys.

Management challenges and therapeutic advances in congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

Treatment for congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) was introduced in the 1950s following the discovery of the structure and function of adrenocortical hormones. Although major advances in molecular biology have delineated steroidogenic mechanisms and the genetics of CAH, management and treatment of this condition continue to present challenges. Management is complicated by a combination of comorbidities that arise from disease-related hormonal derangements and treatment-related adverse effects. The clinical outcomes of CAH can include life-threatening adrenal crises, altered growth and early puberty, and adverse effects on metabolic, cardiovascular, bone and reproductive health. Standard-of-care glucocorticoid formulations fall short of replicating the circadian rhythm of cortisol and controlling efficient adrenocorticotrophic hormone-driven adrenal androgen production. Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated androgens have emerged as potential new biomarkers for CAH, as traditional biomarkers are subject to variability and are not adrenal-specific, contributing to management challenges. Multiple alternative treatment approaches are being developed with the aim of tailoring therapy for improved patient outcomes. This Review focuses on challenges and advances in the management and treatment of CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency, the most common type of CAH. Furthermore, we examine new therapeutic developments, including treatments designed to replace cortisol in a physiological manner and adjunct agents intended to control excess androgens and thereby enable reductions in glucocorticoid doses.

24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency.

Background: Optimal management of androgen excess in 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) remains challenging. 11-oxygenated-C19 steroids (11-oxyandrogens) have emerged as promising biomarkers of disease control, but data regarding their response to treatment are lacking. Objective: To compare the dynamic response of a broad set of steroids to both conventional oral glucocorticoids (OG) and circadian cortisol replacement via continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion (CSHI) in patients with 21OHD based on 24-hour serial sampling. Participants and Methods: We studied 8 adults (5 women), ages 19-43 years, with poorly controlled classic 21OHD who participated in a single-center open-label phase I-II study comparing OG with CSHI. We used mass spectrometry to measure 15 steroids (including 11-oxyandrogens and Δ5 steroid sulfates) in serum samples obtained every 2 h for 24 h after 3 months of stable OG, and 6 months into ongoing CSHI. Results: In response to OG therapy, androstenedione, testosterone (T), and their four 11-oxyandrogen metabolites:11ß-hydroxyandrostenedione, 11-ketoandrostenedione, 11ß-hydroxytestosterone and 11-ketotestosterone (11KT) demonstrated a delayed decline in serum concentrations, and they achieved a nadir between 0100-0300. Unlike DHEAS, which had little diurnal variation, pregnenolone sulfate (PregS) and 17-hydoxypregnenolone sulfate peaked in early morning and declined progressively throughout the day. CSHI dampened the early ACTH and androgen rise, allowing the ACTH-driven adrenal steroids to return closer to baseline before mid-day. 11KT concentrations displayed the most consistent difference between OG and CSHI across all time segments. While T was lowered by CSHI as compared with OG in women, T increased in men, suggesting an improvement of the testicular function in parallel with 21OHD control in men. Conclusion: 11-oxyandrogens and PregS could serve as biomarkers of disease control in 21OHD. The development of normative data for these promising novel biomarkers must consider their diurnal variability.

Morphologic and Molecular Characterization of Adrenals and Adrenal Rest Affected by Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.

Introduction: Adrenocortical hyperplasia and adrenal rest tumor (ART) formation are common in congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Although driven by excessive corticotropin, much is unknown regarding the morphology and transformation of these tissues. Our study objective was to characterize CAH-affected adrenals and ART and compare with control adrenal and gonadal tissues. Patients/Methods: CAH adrenals, ART and control tissues were analyzed by histology, immunohistochemistry, and transcriptome sequencing. We investigated protein expression of the ACTH receptor (MC2R), steroidogenic (CYP11B2, CYP11B1, CYB5A) and immune (CD20, CD3, CD68) biomarkers, and delta-like 1 homolog (DLK1), a membrane bound protein broadly expressed in fetal and many endocrine cells. RNA was isolated and gene expression was analyzed by RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) followed by principle component, and unsupervised clustering analyses. Results: Based on immunohistochemistry, CAH adrenals and ART demonstrated increased zona reticularis (ZR)-like CYB5A expression, compared to CYP11B1, and CYP11B2, markers of zona fasciculata and zona glomerulosa respectively. CYP11B2 was mostly absent in CAH adrenals and absent in ART. DLK1 was present in CAH adrenal, ART, and also control adrenal and testis, but was absent in control ovary. Increased expression of adrenocortical marker MC2R, was observed in CAH adrenals compared to control adrenal. Unlike control tissues, significant nodular lymphocytic infiltration was observed in CAH adrenals and ART, with CD20 (B-cell), CD3 (T-cell) and CD68 (macrophage/monocyte) markers of inflammation. RNA-seq data revealed co-expression of adrenal MC2R, and testis-specific INSL3, HSD17B3 in testicular ART indicating the presence of both gonadal and adrenal features, and high expression of DLK1 in ART, CAH adrenals and control adrenal. Principal component analysis indicated that the ART transcriptome was more similar to CAH adrenals and least similar to control testis tissue. Conclusions: CAH-affected adrenal glands and ART have similar expression profiles and morphology, demonstrating increased CYB5A with ZR characteristics and lymphocytic infiltration, suggesting a common origin that is similarly affected by the abnormal hormonal milieu. Immune system modulators may play a role in tumor formation of CAH.

Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors and Metabolic Morbidity in a Longitudinal Study of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.

CONTEXT: Patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) are exposed to hyperandrogenism and supraphysiologic glucocorticoids, both of which can increase risk of metabolic morbidity. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to evaluate cardiovascular and metabolic morbidity risk in a longitudinal study of patients with CAH spanning both childhood and adulthood. DESIGN AND SETTING: Patients with classic CAH followed for a minimum of 5 years during both childhood and adulthood (n = 57) at the National Institutes of Health were included and compared with the US general population using NHANES data. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Obesity, hypertension, insulin resistance, fasting hyperglycemia, and dyslipidemia. RESULTS: Compared to the US population, patients with CAH had higher (P < 0.001) prevalence of obesity, hypertension, insulin resistance, fasting hyperglycemia, and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) during childhood and obesity (P = 0.024), hypertension (P<0.001), and insulin resistance (P < 0.001) during adulthood. In our cohort, obesity, hypertension, fasting hyperglycemia, and hypertriglyceridemia began prior to age 10. During childhood, increased mineralocorticoid dose was associated with hypertension (P = 0.0015) and low HDL (P = 0.0021). During adulthood, suppressed androstenedione was associated with hypertension (P = 0.002), and high low-density lipoprotein (P = 0.0039) whereas suppressed testosterone (P = 0.003) was associated with insulin resistance. Elevated 17-hydroxyprogesterone, possibly reflecting poor disease control, was protective against high cholesterol (P = 0.0049) in children. Children whose mothers were obese (maternal obesity) had increased risk of obesity during adulthood (P = 0.0021). Obesity, in turn, contributed to the development of hypertension, insulin resistance, and hypertriglyceridemia in adulthood. CONCLUSION: Patients with CAH develop metabolic morbidity at a young age associated with treatment-related and familial factors. Judicious use of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid is warranted.

Modified-Release Hydrocortisone in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.

CONTEXT: Standard glucocorticoid therapy in congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) regularly fails to control androgen excess, causing glucocorticoid overexposure and poor health outcomes. OBJECTIVE: We investigated whether modified-release hydrocortisone (MR-HC), which mimics physiologic cortisol secretion, could improve disease control. METHODS: A 6-month, randomized, phase 3 study was conducted of MR-HC vs standard glucocorticoid, followed by a single-arm MR-HC extension study. Primary outcomes were change in 24-hour SD score (SDS) of androgen precursor 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) for phase 3, and efficacy, safety and tolerability of MR-HC for the extension study. RESULTS: The phase 3 study recruited 122 adult CAH patients. Although the study failed its primary outcome at 6 months, there was evidence of better biochemical control on MR-HC, with lower 17OHP SDS at 4 (P = .007) and 12 (P = .019) weeks, and between 07:00h to 15:00h (P = .044) at 6 months. The percentage of patients with controlled 09:00h serum 17OHP (< 1200 ng/dL) was 52% at baseline, at 6 months 91% for MR-HC and 71% for standard therapy (P = .002), and 80% for MR-HC at 18 months' extension. The median daily hydrocortisone dose was 25 mg at baseline, at 6 months 31 mg for standard therapy, and 30 mg for MR-HC, and after 18 months 20 mg MR-HC. Three adrenal crises occurred in phase 3, none on MR-HC and 4 in the extension study. MR-HC resulted in patient-reported benefit including menses restoration in 8 patients (1 on standard therapy), and 3 patient and 4 partner pregnancies (none on standard therapy). CONCLUSION: MR-HC improved biochemical disease control in adults with reduction in steroid dose over time and patient-reported benefit.

A TNXB splice donor site variant as a cause of hypermobility type Ehlers-Danlos syndrome in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

BACKGROUND: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency is an autosomal recessive disease of steroidogenesis that affects 1 in 15,000. Approximately, 10% of the CAH population also suffer from CAH-X, a connective tissue dysplasia consistent with hypermobility type Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS). Most patients with CAH-X carry a contiguous gene deletion involving CYP21A2 encoding 21-hydroxylase and TNXB encoding tenascin-X (TNX), but some are of unknown etiology. METHODS: We conducted clinical evaluation and medical history review of EDS-related manifestations in subjects from two unrelated CAH families who carry a heterozygous TNXB c.12463+2T>C variant that alters the splice donor site of intron 42. A next generation sequencing (NGS) based EDS panel composed of 45 genes was performed for index patients from each family. TNX expression in patient skin biopsy tissues and dermal fibroblasts was assessed by qRT-PCR and Sanger sequencing. RESULTS: All three evaluated CAH patients carrying the TNXB splice site variant had moderate EDS manifestations. An NGS panel excluded involvement of other known EDS-related variants. RNA assay on skin biopsies and dermal fibroblasts did not detect splicing errors in TNX mRNA; however, the removal of intron 42 was less efficient in the allele harboring the splice site variant as evidenced by the existence of a premature TNX RNA form, leading to an allele specific decrease in TNX mRNA. CONCLUSIONS: Carrying a TNXB c.12463+2T>C variant at the intron 42 splice donor site causes an allele specific decrease in TNX expression, which can be associated with moderate EDS in CAH patients.

Individualizing Management of Infertility in Classic Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors.

Testicular adrenal rest tumors (TARTs) are a common cause of male infertility in patients with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). These tumors are located in the rete testis and can lead to impaired blood flow and functional impairment of seminiferous tubules. We describe restoration of fertility in a man with CAH and bilateral TARTs with use of lower-dose glucocorticoid therapy than previously described. A 28-year-old man with classic salt-wasting CAH presented with impaired fertility. Biochemical evaluation showed poor CAH control despite reported compliance with prednisone 5 mg every morning and fludrocortisone 50 µg twice daily. Semen analysis showed azoospermia. Testicular ultrasonography showed TARTs occupying 16% of total testicular volume. After 5 months of dexamethasone 250 µg at bedtime, total TART volume decreased 90%, biochemical control improved, and semen analysis showed a sperm count of 132 × 106 million per milliliter. The patient's wife was confirmed to be pregnant 9 months after the initial visit and delivered a healthy full-term baby girl. The patient's glucocorticoid therapy was changed to prednisone 3 mg twice daily, and 2 years later he continues to show adequate CAH control, stable TART volume, and normal semen analysis, and his wife is pregnant again. Management of CAH in men with TARTs needs to be individualized, and high-dose dexamethasone may not be indicated. The use of a long-acting glucocorticoid at typical recommended dosages can decrease TART size and reverse male infertility. Prednisone given once daily does not adequately control the ACTH-driven complications of CAH.

Adrenal morphology and associated comorbidities in congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

OBJECTIVE: Adrenonodular hyperplasia and tumour formation are potential long-term complications of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) with little known regarding the clinical implications. Our aim was to describe volumetric adrenal morphology and determine the association between radiological findings and comorbidities in adults with classic CAH. DESIGN: This was a cross-sectional study of 88 patients (mean age 29.2 ± 13 years, 47 females) with classic CAH seen in a tertiary referral centre. METHODS: CT imaging, performed at study entry or when reaching adulthood, was used to create 3-dimensional volumetric models. Clinical, genetic and hormonal evaluations were collected and correlated with adrenal morphology and tumour formation. RESULTS: Over one-third of the cohort was obese. 53% had elevated 17-OH-progesterone or androstenedione; and 60% had adrenal hyperplasia. Tumours included 11 myelolipomas, 8 benign adrenocortical adenomas, 1 pheochromocytoma and 50% of men had testicular adrenal rest tissue. CAH patients with adrenal hyperplasia had significantly higher number of comorbidities than those with morphologically normal adrenals (P = 0.03). Variables that positively correlated with adrenal volume included hypogonadal/oligomenorrhoeic status, hypertension, androstenedione, aldosterone, and triglyceride levels, and in women, low HDL and insulin resistance. Elevated aldosterone was observed in a subset of patients with simple virilizing CAH. CONCLUSIONS: Adrenocortical hyperplasia is associated with a number of comorbidities, especially hypogonadism. Aldosterone production associated with adrenal enlargement may play a role in the development of metabolic risk factors. Further studies are needed to assess the long-term impact of the excess adrenal steroid milieu associated with adrenal enlargement to develop improved management strategies for CAH.

Characterization of the CYP11A1 Nonsynonymous Variant p.E314K in Children Presenting With Adrenal Insufficiency.

Context: Cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc), encoded by CYP11A1, catalyzes the first step of steroidogenesis. Complete P450scc deficiency leads to primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) and 46,XY disordered sexual development. Partial impairment can cause variable adrenal and gonadal dysfunction. Objective: Our aim was to evaluate the effects of the CYP11A1 variant p.E314K, identified in patients with PAI, specifically on P450scc enzyme stability and function. Patients and Methods: We studied four boys from two unrelated families presenting with PAI during childhood (3.6 to 9 years old). All patients were compound heterozygous for c.940G>A (p.E314K), a CYP11A1 nonsynonymous variant likely to be pathogenic by some but not all in silico prediction models, and c.835delA (p.I79Yfs*10), a known pathogenic variant. HEK293T cells were transfected with wild type (WT) and p.E314K mutant vectors, and a cycloheximide chase assay was performed to analyze protein stability. Pregnenolone production was assayed from cells expressing WT and p.E314K-F2 fusion proteins. Results: Two boys experienced spontaneous puberty but then developed evidence of primary gonadal failure at 14 and 18 years old. Two boys had testicular adrenal rest tumor (TART), detected by ultrasound at ages 8.6 and 16 years. Compared with WT, mutant protein synthesis was reduced (P = 0.0006) with increased protein turnover, and mutant P450scc half-life was decreased by ~50%. p.E314K mutant P450scc retained 60% of WT enzymatic activity (P = 0.007). Conclusions: The CYP11A1 p.E314K variant impairs P450scc stability and is a possible cause of PAI in childhood. Pathogenic CYP11A1 variants potentially affect both adrenal and gonadal function, and male patients may develop TART.

Long-term use of continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion therapy in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

BACKGROUND: In a phase 2 short-term (6 months) study of patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion (CSHI) was found to be a safe, effective and well-tolerated method of replacing cortisol with improved disease and patient-related outcomes. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of long-term CSHI. DESIGN: Single-centre, open-label, phase 2 extension study. PATIENTS: Five adults with classic CAH. MEASUREMENTS: Biomarkers of disease control, metabolic indices and health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) estimates. RESULTS: Six of eight patients chose to continue on long-term CSHI therapy. Compared to baseline, eighteen months of CSHI resulted in decreased (P = 0.043) 0700-hour ACTH, 17-hydroxyprogesterone, androstenedione and progesterone; increased whole-body lean mass (P = 0.024); and improved HRQoL, especially symptoms of adrenal insufficiency (P = 0.003). Findings at six and eighteen months did not differ, and improvements achieved in androgen control, lean body mass and HRQoL after 6 months of CSHI were maintained at eighteen months. The hydrocortisone dose appeared to decrease with time [6 vs 18 months: 38.3 ± 8.8 vs 33.6 ± 12.2 mg/day (P = 0.062)], especially in women receiving oral contraceptives. Reduction of testicular adrenal rest and adrenal size observed at 6 months remained stable. In one patient, an adrenal adenoma continually decreased over time. Subjective improvement in hirsutism was reported. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term use of CSHI is a safe and well-tolerated treatment option in a select set of adults with classic CAH. Improvements observed short term in disease control and subjective health status continued long term.

Longitudinal Assessment of Illnesses, Stress Dosing, and Illness Sequelae in Patients With Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.

Context: Patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) are at risk for life-threatening adrenal crises. Management of illness episodes aims to prevent adrenal crises. Objective: We evaluated rates of illnesses and associated factors in patients with CAH followed prospectively and receiving repeated glucocorticoid stress dosing education. Methods: Longitudinal analysis of 156 patients with CAH followed at the National Institutes of Health Clinical Center over 23 years was performed. The rates of illnesses and stress-dose days, emergency room (ER) visits, hospitalizations, and adrenal crises were analyzed in relation to phenotype, age, sex, treatment, and hormonal evaluations. Results: A total of 2298 visits were evaluated. Patients were followed for 9.3 ± 6.0 years. During childhood, there were more illness episodes and stress dosing than adulthood (P < 0.001); however, more ER visits and hospitalizations occurred during adulthood (P ≤ 0.03). The most robust predictors of stress dosing were young age, low hydrocortisone and high fludrocortisone dose during childhood, and female sex during adulthood. Gastrointestinal and upper respiratory tract infections (URIs) were the two most common precipitating events for adrenal crises and hospitalizations across all ages. Adrenal crisis with probable hypoglycemia occurred in 11 pediatric patients (ages 1.1 to 11.3 years). Undetectable epinephrine was associated with ER visits during childhood (P = 0.03) and illness episodes during adulthood (P = 0.03). Conclusions: Repeated stress-related glucocorticoid dosing teaching is essential, but revised age-appropriate guidelines for the management of infectious illnesses are needed for patients with adrenal insufficiency that aim to reduce adrenal crises and prevent hypoglycemia, particularly in children.

Alterations in Hydrocortisone Pharmacokinetics in a Patient With Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Following Bariatric Surgery.

Management of adult patients with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is challenging and often complicated by obesity, metabolic syndrome, and adverse cardiovascular risk. Alterations in weight can influence cortisol kinetics. A 19-year-old woman with classic CAH and morbid obesity experienced persistent elevations of androgen levels while receiving oral glucocorticoid therapy. Control of adrenal androgens was improved with continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion therapy, but obesity-related comorbidities persisted. After undergoing sleeve gastrectomy, the patient experienced dramatic weight loss, with improvement in insulin sensitivity and fatty liver in the postbariatric period. Cortisol clearance studies performed to evaluate changes in hydrocortisone dose requirements showed marked alternations in cortisol pharmacokinetics with decreases in volume of distribution and cortisol clearance, along with an increase in area under the curve for cortisol. Hydrocortisone dose was subsequently decreased 34% by 15 months after surgery. Effective control of androgen excess on this lower hydrocortisone dose was achieved and continues 27 months after surgery. This case highlights obesity-related complications of glucocorticoid replacement therapy in the management of CAH. Individual patient factors, such as fatty liver disease and insulin resistance, can have a clinically important effect on cortisol metabolism. Bariatric surgery was a safe and effective treatment of obesity in this patient with CAH and should be considered for patients with CAH and multiple obesity-related comorbidities.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Presenting as an Adrenal Mass With Increased 18F-FDG Positron Emission Tomography Uptake.

This article describes congenital adrenal hyperplasia presenting as an adrenal mass with increased 18F-FDG positron emission tomography uptake.

Corrigendum to "Management Challenges in a Child with Chronic Hyponatremia: Use of V2 Receptor Antagonist".

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1155/2017/3757423.].

11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency.

Context: Patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) have long-term complications, resulting from poor disease control and/or glucocorticoid overtreatment. Lack of optimal biomarkers has made it challenging to tailor therapy and predict long-term outcomes. Objective: To identify biomarkers of disease control and long-term complications in 21OHD. Setting and Participants: Cross-sectional study of 114 patients (70 males), ages 2 to 67 years (median, 15 years), seen in a tertiary referral center. Methods: We correlated a mass-spectrometry panel of 23 steroids, obtained before first morning medication, with bone age advancement (children), adrenal volume (adults), testicular adrenal rest tumors (TART), hirsutism, menstrual disorders, and pituitary hormones. Results: Total adrenal volume correlated positively with 18 steroids, most prominently 21-deoxycortisol and four 11-oxygenated-C19 (11oxC19) steroids: 11ß-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4), 11-ketoandrostenedione (11ketoA4), 11ß-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT), and 11-ketotestosterone (11ketoT) (r ≈ 0.7, P < 0.0001). Nine steroids were significantly higher (P ≤ 0.01) in males with TART compared with those without TART, including 11OHA4 (6.8-fold), 11OHT (4.9-fold), 11ketoT (3.6-fold), 11ketoA4 (3.3-fold), and pregnenolone sulfate (PregS; 4.8-fold). PregS (28.5-fold) and 17-hydroxypregnenolone sulfate (19-fold) levels were higher (P < 0.01) in postpubertal females with menstrual disorders. In males, testosterone levels correlated positively with all 11oxC19 steroids in Tanner stages 1 and 2 (r ≈ 0.7; P < 0.001) but negatively in Tanner stage 5 (r = -0.3 and P < 0.05 for 11ketoA4 and 11ketoT). In females, testosterone level correlated positively with all four 11oxC19 steroids across all Tanner stages (r ≈ 0.8; P < 0.0001). Conclusion: 11oxC19 steroids and PregS might serve as clinically useful biomarkers of disease control and long-term complications in 21OHD.